British Identity: A Shared Culture

British Identity: A Shared Culture The concept of identity has both personal and social perspectives but, irrespective of focus, each is concerned with categorisation and assumptions of similarity and difference. Social identity relates to the links that exist between people and places, the ideas and practices that align individuals to one social group as opposed to another and the feeling of acceptance and belonging which comes from such allegiance. Great Britain consists of a group of individual countries: England, Wales and Scotland, each of which joined the union at different points in a turbulent history. Northern Ireland, whilst part of the United Kingdom, is not part of Great Britain despite its population being included in the British political process. In spite of these confusing, apparently all-encompassing titles, each individual nation retains a separate identity in addition to the collective ones conferred by the UK and GB acronyms. Historically, English dominance of the union has been a source of contention and in recent years the individual identities of Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland have become more officially recognised by the adoption of a partially devolved political process for the former two and a power sharing agreement with the Irish Republic for the latter. The merits or shortcomings of devolution fall outside the scope of this essay, nevertheless, it could be argued that at a time when the very notion of Britishness is up for debate, separating the union, even if only for political purposes, will do nothing to strengthen a collective sense of national identity if, in fact, one ever truly existed. Diversity amongst the individual nations of the United Kingdom is only one part of the story and despite being an island and thus having an easily recognisable border, the reach of Britain extends well beyond geographical limits. Great Britains empire building past has left a web of connections that span the world. The British Empire at its height covered a quarter of the globe, and whilst many former colonies, dependencies and protectorates have since regained independence, the history of a British presence in parts of South Asia, Africa and the Caribbean left a postcolonial legacy of citizenship rights which has contributed to the multi-cultural, multi-ethnic society that exists in Britain today. Whether because of commerce or conquest, as an escape from poverty or persecution, Britains population comprises a diverse collection of people, some of whom may have connections to and, therefore, identify with places other than the British Isles. Who we are and who others think we are has a lot to do with where we live and our origins, but it takes much more than territorial borders to define national identity. It is almost impossible to say exactly what British identity is or should be in the 21st century and as a result the very idea of Britishness has been the source of much anxiety, uncertainty and political debate in recent years (Clarke, 2009, P. 210). From politicians to social commentators, newspaper editors to academics, all have suggested ways in which the meaning of Britishness could be constructed and fixed. Amongst other things, Clarke suggests that British national identity may mean having a sense of place, a shared way of life, a common history and a recognised image of race or ethnicity (2009, p. 219), but in light of the diverse nature of Britains population some of his suggestions seem more plausible than others. A sense of place can only come from a feeling of acceptance and belonging, hard to achieve when even after three generations of British citizenship your community is still viewed with suspicion and resentment. The idea of a common history may not sit well with everyone, especially those whose ancestors were the subject of domination, oppression and exploitation. A recognised image of race or ethnicity implies a singular recognition, fine if your skin is the right colour, but at risk from discrimination if it is not, legislation can protect but it cannot change attitudes. Even though a shared way of life seems to be a reasonable suggestion, cultural differences make this eq ually difficult to imagine. Culture, according to Clarke, has at least two meanings (2009, p. 219). The first suggested interpretation is what he calls high culture; this includes art, literature, theatre and music. Writers such as Shakespeare, Austen and Dickens, artists such as Turner and Constable and composers such as Elgar all supposedly provide an apparently shared set of reference points with which all British people can identify (2009, p. 221). However, Clarke also notes that the stressed importance of English names in the list of preferred cultural icons excludes not only those members of British society whose origins, whether real or imagined, lie outside its geographical limits, but those from other parts of the UK too. Raymond Williams (1958, cited in Clarke, 2009, p. 219) calls this a selective tradition. Therefore, to suggest the use of British high culture as a unifying tool is to exclude a large section of society to whom it is probably irrelevant and perhaps even unintelligible. Clarkes suggestion of a shared way of life also falls under the cultural banner. Normal everyday practices of living such as dress, food, customs and religious observance are all important in defining the meaning of culture. Common forms of behaviour, values, morals and ethics are important in a shared way of life but immediately this highlights some problems. Religious and cultural differences, for example, may make behaviour considered acceptable to people in one community completely unacceptable to those of another. Not all diversity is necessarily ethnic or religious, however, and age, gender, social background and political differences can all divide as well as unite. Having established the difficulty in accepting shared culture as a means of defining British identity, the idea of shared values has been suggested by both David Blunkett and Trevor Phillips. Mr. Blunkett, former UK Home Secretary, suggested that Britishness is defined à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ through our shared values, our history of tolerance, of openness (2005, cited in Clarke, 2009, P. 221). Trevor Phillips, former Chairman of the Commission for Racial Equality, also suggested that Britishness à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ lies in a way of living à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ In a diverse society, the shared values are the fundamental glue that holds us together; and the way we behave towards each other is the outward manifestation of our values. (2007, cited in Clarke, 2009, PP. 222-223). Both these statements, whilst obviously well meant, do not stand up to scrutiny. To suggest that the British people are tolerant and open is to deny history. Perhaps Blunkett and Phillips are simply stating how they would like peo ple to think and act, in which case their argument will likely fall on many deaf ears! For Blunkett and Phillips diversity is a positive thing, something to embrace and celebrate. They suggest that only through tolerance and openness to diversity can Britain gain a unifying sense of identity. Their views have been contested, however, and statements denouncing the acceptance and encouragement of diversity have been equally prominent. David Goodhart, a magazine editor, has suggested that increasing diversity in Britain has caused us to become a nation of strangers. He also suggests, As Britain becomes more diverse that common culture is being eroded (2004, cited in Clarke, 2009, pp225-226). Whatever common culture he happens to be referring to; he suggests that its loss is leading to a lack of solidarity and social cohesion. His opinion, unlike that of Blunkett and Phillips, however, does not carry the weight of authority since it is a personal opinion expressed in a magazine article. In complete contrast to Goodhart, Bhikhu Parekh, in a report for the Runnymeade Trust, suggests that diversity and collective national identity need not be mutually exclusive. Whilst acknowledging the risk of social fragmentation and racism, Parekh suggests that if all members of society feel equally valued, have access to equal opportunities, lead fulfilling lives and shoulder the burden of societal responsibility that it may be possible to develop a shared identity and common sense of belonging (2000, cited in Clarke, 2009, pp. 226-227). In a diverse society, therefore, the concept of national identity should be all-inclusive; clearly, this cannot depend on a shared culture. Moreover, simply telling people how to think or behave will not change attitudes nor make them feel united. Ultimately, perhaps economic and social equality will lead to a unified purpose and sense of collective identity or perhaps not, this is clearly a complex question without a single answer. (1500 words) Life stage analysis: Maturity – Old Age Life stage analysis: Maturity – Old Age In 2005, an estimated one in six individuals was over the age of 65, representing 16 percent of the UK population[1]. The National Statistics Office reports that the largest population increase was evidenced in the 85+ age group, growing by more than 64,000 (6 per cent) in 2005, totalling 1.2 million individuals[2]. Many factors are responsible for this the growth rate in the over 65, primarily in the later older adult stage of 85+, as healthcare and technology are improving and leading to increased survival rates, coupled by the post World War One baby boomers reaching their later adult years[3]. Increasingly, nursing and other professional groups are utilizing Enquiry Based Learning (EBL) that uses situations from real life to analyse issues while learning from a nursing perspective with an emphasis on refining capabilities in actual nursing practice[4]. Researchers emphasize the open-ended questioning used for complex problems or scenarios that allow the nurse to seek out new evidence[5]. Using an Enquiry Based Learning scenario, this paper will present the case of special needs family and with an emphasis on life stage analysis of the elderly. Following a brief case presentation, this paper will define the maturity-old age life stage, describing various factors specific to maturity that influence the person’s biological, psychological and social perspectives. Personal and practical nursing experience with mature/older patients is presented followed by what has been learned from the research on how to effectively provide nursing care in terms of knowledge, skills and attitudes to older individuals. Case presentation This is the case of a nuclear family. Mr. and Mrs. Smythe’s are adults with two children, a daughter E. who is 14 years old and pregnant and a son who is 4 years old afflicted with Downs Syndrome and suffers with intermittent breathing problems due to the Down’s syndrome. Both children live at home with their parents. Mrs. And Mrs. Smythe are reasonably healthy with no chronic health concerns at this time. Mr. Smythe works full time in a position outside of the home. Mrs. Smythe is a full-time homemaker. Mr. Smythe’s two parents are both alive at 82 years of age and living together in their own dwelling. Both parents are reasonably healthy for their age with no chronic health problems identified at this time. Mrs. Smythe’s father, Mr. Jones, is 86 and a recent widower (of three months). Following the death of her mother, Mrs. Smythe invited her father to live with her family. Mr. Jones is in fair health, although he is depressed and having difficulty adjusting to the new environment at his daughter’s home, the issues with her children and the loss of his wife all occurring within a short time. Assessment Life stage identification This paper will focus on the three individuals in Erikson’s Maturity stage of life, aged 65 to death[6]. This life stage is marked by the psychosocial integrity vs. despair conflict, such that individuals are reflecting back on their lives and either accepts the thought of their death with a sense of accomplishment and fulfilment or a feeling of despair and regret[7]. Smith[8] identifies the 65+ age group as belonging in Levinson’s late adulthood developmental stage. Factors specific to maturity – Physiological/biological As individual ages, many physiological changes take place in virtually all physiological systems, ranging from the endocrine, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, skin, hair and nails and nervous system[9]. Globally, there is a reduction in cells and cellular metabolism, as the body gradually becomes less efficient[10]. Skin looses subcutaneous fat, things and there is a reduction of collagen and elastin combined with a 50 percent reduction in cell replacement[11]. Respiratory muscles degenerate and respiratory capacity decreases, alveoli decline in size and the lungs become more rigid as the individual ages.[12] The heart reduces in size and contractile strength and cardiac efficiency is reduced by as much as 30 – 35 percent[13]. There is a general decrease in height, bone mass, muscle mass and collagen with less joint elasticity[14]. Sleep patterns are altered, with regular wakeful periods during the night[15]. The aging body does not readily distinguish between host cells and infection along with a reduced ability to absorb vitamin B12, decreasing hematocrit and hemoglobin levels. Of particular importance is the reduced drug clearance by approximately 50 percent, often leading to increased risk of drug interactions among elderly individuals who are frequently on more than one pharmaceutical agent[16]. Factors specific to maturity – Psychological and Sociological The death of a spouse is the leading cause of disruptive life-event stress and conflict[17] affecting the way an individual understands themselves and their role in society and the family. Rokach and Brock found that loneliness has a strong correlation with self-esteem in the elderly[18]. Marital status and the death of a spouse contribute to feelings of isolation and loneliness in the elderly, creating a sense of stigma in the individual, causing emotional distress, feelings of rejection and isolation, especially when care is taken over by others such with the death of a spouse[19]. In particular, men have a difficult time with their own emotions, perceiving their social needs for companionship rather than isolation as a sign of weakness[20]. When older individuals are also faced with a reduction in income and job status, the older individual reportedly has a greater propensity towards solitude, isolation and loneliness[21]. Warner[22] found that those elderly adults who maintained their own independence had less of a need for dependent behaviour because of social cues, whereas those who were dependent, such as Mrs. Smythe’s father, Mr. Jones, reacted with a greater sense of learned dependency and associated social contact seeking behaviours. Practical nursing experience that provides a basis for nursing intervention in this case With the knowledge provided by two factors: research and LEIPAD[23], the three elderly individuals were administered the LEIPAD multidimensional assessment to gain a baseline for intervention[24]. LEIPAD is believed to be a stronger single assessment tool than using a combination of The SF-36, Barthel Index of activities of daily living and the Abbreviated Mental test, even though the Barthel Index is recommended by both the Royal College of Physicians of London and the British Geriatrics Society[25]. Mr. Jones requires the greatest intervention due to losses of his wife, independence and immediate social circle. Additionally, Mr. Jones has daily coping issues with his grandchildren. To date, practical nursing experience has primarily focused on education related to chronic diseases and disease prevention with elderly patients. Inconsistency is noted when relating to patients and relating to older members of one’s family, where greater emphasis is placed on psychological and social wellbeing. What has been learned from using the EBL approach to this case? In addition to the amount of research one can use to prepare and expand one’s horizons with an EBL approach, such as using the LEIPAD assessment rather than the Barthel Index, is the use of open-ended questions that solicit a wealth of information. Most practitioners like to keep answers to questions short or they will cut patients off in mid-sentence. Open-ended questions allow for further probing by active listening and a participatory manner. References Austin, Shari. Oral Health and Older Adults. Journal of Dental Hygiene, 2003. De Leo, Diego, Diekstra, Rene, Lonnqvist, Jouko , Trabucchi, Marco, Cleiren, Marc, Frisoni, Giovanni B., Dello Buono, Marirosa, Haltunen, Aro, Zucchetto, Mauro, Rozzini, Renzo, Grigoletto, Francesco, Sampaio-Faria, Jose. LIEPAD, An Internationally Applicable Instrument to Assess Quality of Life in the Elderly. Behavioral Medicine, 1998. Ginsberg, Gary, Hattis, Dale, Russ, Abel Sonawane, Babasaheb. Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Factors that can Affect Sensitivity to Neurotoxic Sequelae in Elderly Individuals. Environmental Health Perspectives, 2005. Hutchins, Bill. Principles of Enquiry-Based Learning, Centre for Excellence in Enquiry-Based Learning Resources – University of Manchester, 2006. Kahn, Peter O’Rourke, Karen. Understanding Enquiry-Based Learning. In Barrett, T., McLabhrainn, I. Fallon, H. eds. Handbook of Enquiry Problem Based Learning, Galway: CELT, 2005. Lyons, Ronald Al., Crone, Peter, Monaghan, Stephen, Killalea, Dan Daley, John A. Health Status and Disability Among Elderly People in Three UK Districts. Age and Ageing, 1997. Office for National Statistics; General Register Office for Scotland and Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency. Population Estimates. 2006 [Online]. Available from: http://www.statistics.gov.uk/CCI/nugget.asp?ID=6 (cited 1 May 2007). Price, Robert. Enquiry-Based Learning: An Introductory Guide. Nursing Standards, 2001. Rokach, Ami Brock, Heather. Loneliness and the Effects of Life Changes. The Journal of Psychology, 1997. Smith, Mark K. Life Span Development and Lifelong Learning. [Online]. Infed. Available from: http://www.infed.org/biblio/lifecourse_development.htm (cited 1 May 2007). Tosey, Paul McDonnell, Juliet, Mapping Enquiry Based Learning: Discourse, Fractals and a Bowl of Cherries. 2006. [Online]. Available from: http://www.com.survey.ac.uk/learningtolearn (cited 30 April 2007). Warner, Dorothy Ann. Empowering the Older Adult through Folklore. Adultspan Journal, 2006. Winters, Angela. Erikson’s Theory of Human Development. [Online]. Ezine Articles. Available from: http://ezinearticles.com/?Ericksons-Theory-of-Human-Developmentid=20117 (cited 1 May 2007). Footnotes [1] Office for National Statistics; General Register Office for Scotland and Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency. 2006. [2] Office for National Statistics, 2006. [3] Office for National Statistics, 2006. [4] R. Price, Enquiry-Based Learning: An Introductory Guide, Nursing Standards, 2001) 18. [5] B. Hutchings, Principles of Enquiry Based Learning, Centre for Excellence in Enquiry-Based Learning, University of Manchester, 2006 and Kahn O’Rourke, 2005. [6] A. Winters, Erikson’s Theory of Human Development. Ezine articles, 2007. [7] Winters, 2007. [8] M. Smith, Life Span Development and Lifelong Learning, 2005. [9] S. Austin, Oral Health and Older Adults, Journal of Dental Hygiene, 2003) 129. [10] Austin, 2003) 129. [11] Austin, 2003) 129. [12] Austin, 2003) 129. [13] Austin, 2003) 129. [14] Austin, 2003) 130. [15] Austin, 2003) 130. [16] G. Ginsberg et al., Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Factors that can Affect Sensitivity to Neurotoxic Sequelae in Elderly Individuals, Environmental Health Perspectives, 2005) 1249, [17] Tennant and Pogson, 1995 as cited by Smith, 2005. [18] A. Rokach H. Brock, Loneliness and the Effects of Life Change, The Journal of Psychology, 1997) 285. [19] Rokach Brock, 1997) 289. [20] Rokach Brock, 1997) 290. [21] Rokack Brock, 1997) 296. [22] D. A. Warner, Empowering the Older Adult through Folklore, Adultspan Journal, 2006. [23] D. DeLeo et al., LEIPAD, An Internationally Applicable Instrument to Assess Quality of Life in the Elderly, Behavioral Medicine, 1999) 27. The LEIPAD assessment was determined to assess physical, mental, social and occupational status, including self-assessments of health status and perceptions, inclusive of pain, self-esteem, self-confidence, levels of optimism, anxiety and depression, including feelings about friendship, happiness, loneliness, isolation and solitude. [24] DeLeo et al., 1999) 19. [25] R. A. Lyons, et al., Health Status and Disability Among Elderly People in Three UK Districts, Age and Ageing, 1997) 204. Gender issues: Who is the better teacher? Gender issues: Who is the better teacher? Gender has long been the issue in classroom for over decades. The question of who is a better teacher male of female has always been debated for years. Although this issue has dissipates following the issue of sexism and gender equity, it still knocks on the door of every classroom. Does a teachers gender affect student performance in the classroom? Does student performance increases when taught by teacher of the same sex, or is it the opposite? Many researches have been done in trying to answer these questions, but no definite conclusion has been made. Most of the researchers are still trying to figure out what actually constitutes to the students achievement in relation to teachers gender. There are two views when it comes to the influence of teachers gender effect in classroom, one accepts it and another one denies it. The first one says when students are taught by the teacher of the same sex as the students, the students achievement will increase. Some researchers are saying that students will perform better when taught by the same gender, as they feel more engaged and are able to identify themselves with the teacher because of the same gender factor. Gender role model, stereotypes, expectations, and teaching styles are some of the variables that are brought up when it comes to same-gender factor. Still, there are people who believe that teachers gender effect does not have any influence in students academic achievements. They believed that there is no ample evidence to support such notion, and even if there was, it was not sufficient and significant enough to be accepted as a sole reason for such occurrence. Although many researches had been made, there are still loopholes that need to be filled and studied. Inconsistent findings and conclusions given by previous researchers is one reason why further studies are needed. Some shortcomings and limitation from previous research are also need to be rectified. There are several elements that indirectly influence the teachers gender effect in classroom. Factors such as students perception towards teachers performance and effectiveness in class, and teachers level of interaction are some that will be touched in the article review. All of these elements will be reviewed in terms of gender differences. Because the literature on teachers gender issues is so broad, this review of literature begins by examining theories of gender role development and social learning theories. Next, gender role expectations and the stereotypical male and female student will be examined. This information will then be brought together with research specific to the classroom experience involving student and teacher interactions and research specific to teacher training. 2.1 TEACHING EFFECTIVENESS Effective teachers are those who achieve the goals which they set for themselves or which they have set for them by others (e.g ministries of education, legislators and other government officials, school administrators). As a consequence, those who study and attempt to improve teachers effectiveness must be cognizant of the goals imposed on teachers or the goals that teachers establish for themselves, or both. According to Kemp and Hall (1992), the major research finding is that student achievement is related to teacher competence in teaching. Differential teacher effectiveness is a strong determinant of differences in student learning, far outweighing the effects of differences in class size and class heterogeneity (Darling-Hammond, 2000) According to Sanders and Rivers (1996), students who are assigned to one ineffective teacher after another have significantly lower achievement and learning (that is, gains in achievement) than those who are assigned to a sequence of several highly effective teachers. It is important to note however, that the influence of teacher characteristics on teacher effectiveness is not direct; rather it is moderated or mediated by their effect on the way in which teachers organize their classrooms and operate within them. In Blooms (1972) terns, what teachers are influences what teachers do; what teachers do, in turn, influences what and how much students learn. When asked about their most effective teachers, boys and girls were able to identify a solid list of key characteristics reflected in educational research (Hill Rowe, 1996; Martin, 2002). In Ashley Lee (2003) boys tended consistently to identify the following factors as critical in the kinds of teacher they work well for and respect: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Firm, but fair: able to control the class well to inject humour but regain attention quickly à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Good subject knowledge and enthusiasm for the subject à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The ability to explain things clearly and with patience Fazio and Roskes (1994), said, attitudes are important to educational psychology because they strongly influence social thought, the way an individual thinks about and process social information. According to Eggen and Kauchak (2001), positive teachers attitudes are fundamental to effective teaching. A teacher must be interesting. Eggen and Kauchak (2001) identified a number of teachers attitudes that will facilitate a caring and supportive classroom environment. They are: enthusiasm, caring, firm, democratic practices to promote students responsibility, use time for lesson effectively, have established efficient routines, and interact freely with students and providing motivation for them. According to Shulman (1987), poor communication can make learning even the most simple and straightforward subject-matter far more difficult. Research findings on teachers attitudes (Brunning et al., 1999), established the following facts: Teachers characteristics such as personal teaching efficacy, modeling and enthusiasm, caring and high expectation promote learners motivation. Male teachers tend to be more authoritative and instrumental whereas female teachers tend to be more supportive and expressive (Meece, 1987; Freeman McElhinny, 1996). Teachers variable are also noted to have effect on students academic performances. These includes, teachers knowledge of subject matter, teaching skills, attitude in the classroom, teachers, qualification and teaching experience. Ehindero and Ajibade (2000) asserted that, students, who are curious stakeholders in educational enterprise, have long suspected and speculated that some of their teachers lack the necessary professional (not academic) qualification (that is, skills, techniques, strategies, temperament et cetera) required to communicate concepts, ideas principles et cetera in a way that would facilitate effective learning. According to Kelley Massoni (2004), students expect male teachers as being more knowledgeable than women, and are assumed to be more objective. 2.2 STUDENTS EXPECTATION Sociologist Robert K. Merton (1948) first coined the term self-fulfilling prophecy. As part of his explanation of the SFP, Merton drew upon the idea: If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences (Thomas, 1928, p. 257). Then, if students really think about their teachers, somehow it will materialized in both of the teacher and students teaching and learning process. SFP research (Good, 1987) explains that teachers form expectations of and assign labels to people based upon such characteristics as body build, gender, race, ethnicity, given name and/or surname, attractiveness, dialect, and socioeconomic level, among others. Once we label a person, it affects how we act and react toward that person. With labels, we dont have to get to know the person. We can just assume what the person is like (Oakes, 1996, p. 11). Although self-fulfilling prophecy usually works based on teachers expectation, students also form their own expectation, and could also have their own self-fulfilling prophecy, working both ways, onto them, and also towards the teachers teaching process. The self-fulfilling prophecy works two ways. Not only do teachers form expectations of students, but students form expectations of teachers using the same characteristics described above (Hunsberger Cavanagh, 1988). 2.3 EVALUATION OF TEACHER Many studies reveal that students tend to rate female faculty members differently than male faculty members (Whitworth, Price Randall. 2002; Basow Silberg, 1987; Goodwin Stevens, 1993; Tartro, 1995). Students may hold biased perceptions of the differences between men and women faculty (Andersen Miller, 1997; Burns-Glover Veith, 1995). It is also possible, however, that students are accurately assessing the difference between teaching styles that is attributable to the gender of the faculty member (Centra Gaubatz, 2000). According to Kelley Massoni (2004), the impact of gender in teaching evaluations often is related to students differing gendered expectations of their women and men teachers. A study by Basow (1995) revealed that students perceived female instructors to be more sensitive and considerate of student ideas whereas male instructors were believed to be more knowledgeable. If students are, even in part, picking up on real differences, understanding the effect of gender on teaching styles is important. 2.4 PERCEPTION Perception may be defined from physical, psychological and physiological perspectives. But for the purpose of this study, it shall be limited to its scope as postulated by Allport (1966), which is the way we judge or evaluate others. That is the way individuals evaluate people with whom they are familiar in everyday life. Eggen and Kauchak (2001) gave cognitive dimension of perception; they see perception as the process by which people attach meaning to experiences. 2.5 GENDER BIAS Teachers are more likely to offer praise and remediation in response to comments by boys but mere acknowledgement in response to comments by girls (AAUW 1992, Sadker and Sadker 1994, Saltzman 1994, Kleinfeld 1998, Lewin 1998, and Sommers 2000). The only significant interaction that emerged was that girls reported a better relationship with female teachers than with male teachers, while boys reported fairly similar relationships (TES, 2005). According to Holmlund and Sund (2005), teachers are the role models for the students. If students identify themselves more with same-sex role models, it is possible that performance will be enhanced when students have a teacher of their own gender. Florian (2008) suggests that there is rich evidence within the psychology literature that girls and boys respond differently to mothers and fathers [e.g. Brown, 1990, Brown et al., 1986], and pick different celebrities and athletes to emulate. Male and female teachers are also potential role models. Harris and Barnes (2009) found that four-year-old boys preferred males to form a relationship and saw the male teacher as the person to be involved in sports and physical games. Teachers gender influences how that teacher interacts and communicates with his or her students (Constantinou, 2008). As Hurt, Scott and McCroskey (1978) have stated it, there is a difference between knowing and teaching, and that difference is communication in the classroom (p. 3). According to Dee (2006), assignment to a same-gender teacher significantly improves the achievement of both girls and boys as well as teacher perceptions of student performance and student engagement with the teachers subject. He also found that, having a teacher of the same sex increased a students score on standardized tests significantly while having a teacher of the opposite sex decreased scores. But Florian (2008) finds that male students performing worse with female instructor, while female performance appear unaffected. According to Dee (2006), in a class taught by a man, girls were more likely to say the subject was not useful for their future and they were less likely to look forward to the class or to ask questions. 2.6 CONCLUSION Teachers may react in a different way depending on the gender of a student, or students may react in a different way depending on the gender of a teacher. Firstly, teachers discriminate, and display bias with respect to how they engage or assess boys and girls in the classroom. The mode teachers behave interacting with boys or girls may rely on whether teachers themselves are male or female. These effects may be conscious or unconscious. Secondly, students may see teachers more as role models if they are of the same sex, and show greater intellectual engagement, manner, and interest. Students may also react to teachers through negative stereotype for example, when female students are reminded about a belief they are not supposed to be good at math when being taught by a male teacher. Another probability is that male and female students respond differently to male and female teaching styles. It is important for teacher to know what he/she is expected from the students. Fulfilling the expectation can make learning process easier for the students and make them more motivated.